Core technical principles

Composite materials such as CFRP are used for high-performance bicycle frames because of their high strength-to-weight ratio compared to steel or aluminium — equal stiffness at lower mass.

A capacitor is an electronic component that stores energy in an electric field between two plates and can release it very quickly when discharged.

Cast iron tends to be brittle (except for malleable cast iron, which approaches mild steel's properties); cast iron is generally more brittle than mild steel.

A 3/2 directional control valve has 3 ports and 2 positions; it controls a single-acting cylinder (supply, exhaust, switch-over).

Additive manufacturing (3D printing) builds three-dimensional parts layer by layer from a digital CAD model.

The 555 timer IC in astable mode produces a continuous square-wave pulse train; the frequency and duty cycle are set by external resistors and a capacitor.

Formula 1 monocoque chassis are built primarily from carbon-fibre-reinforced polymer (CFRP) — chosen for combined stiffness, low mass, and energy absorption in crashes.

A hydrogen fuel cell generates electricity by electrochemically combining hydrogen and oxygen; the only by-product is water (plus heat).

Ductility is a material's ability to be drawn out into thin wires under tensile load without breaking.

A 5/2 directional control valve (5 ports, 2 positions) switches air to either side of a double-acting cylinder, enabling controlled extend/retract motion.